Pre-Socratic philosophy, also known as Early Greek Philosophy, refers to the philosophical tradition that predates Socrates in ancient Greece. These early philosophers were primarily concerned with cosmology, delving into the origins and nature of the universe. However, their inquiries extended beyond the natural world to encompass topics such as human society, ethics, and religion. Notably, they sought to explain phenomena through natural laws rather than attributing them to divine intervention. Unfortunately, much of their original work and writings have been lost over time. Our knowledge of their views primarily comes from later authors who discussed the ideas of these pre-Socratic thinkers. The ancient Greek world provided an ideal environment for the development of philosophy due to its close connections with neighboring civilizations and the emergence of independent city-states, known as poleis.
Pre-Socratic Philosophy
Pre-Socratic philosophy emerged in the 6th century BCE with the three Milesians: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes. Each of them proposed an “arche,” which could mean “origin,” “substance,” or “principle,” to explain the nature of the world. Thales believed water was the arche, Anaximander proposed the concept of Apeiron (the unlimited), and Anaximenes attributed it to air.
Three other pre-Socratic philosophers hailed from nearby Ionian towns: Xenophanes, Heraclitus, and Pythagoras. Xenophanes is known for his criticism of anthropomorphism in gods. Heraclitus, who was notoriously difficult to understand, is famous for his maxim on impermanence, “ta panta rhei,” and for considering fire as the arche of the world. Pythagoras developed a cult-like following that believed the universe was composed of numbers.
In the 5th century BCE, the Eleatic school, consisting of Parmenides, Zeno of Elea, and Melissus, emerged. Parmenides argued that only one thing exists and that change is impossible. Zeno and Melissus primarily defended Parmenides’ viewpoint.
Anaxagoras and Empedocles presented a pluralistic explanation for the creation of the universe. Leucippus and Democritus are known for their atomism, asserting that only void and matter exist. The Sophists, on the other hand, promoted philosophical relativism.
The Impact of the Pre-Socratics on Western Civilization
The pre-Socratics have had a significant impact on Western civilization. They were the pioneers of key concepts such as naturalism and rationalism, and they also laid the foundation for scientific methodology.
The Emergence of Philosophy in Ancient Greece
Philosophy first emerged in ancient Greece during the 6th century BCE. This period, known as the pre-Socratic era, lasted for approximately two centuries. It coincided with the expansion of the Persian Achaemenid Empire to the west, while the Greeks were making advancements in trade and sea routes, extending their reach to Cyprus and Syria.
The Pre-Socratics in Ionia
The first pre-Socratic philosophers resided in Ionia, a region located on the western coast of Anatolia. However, the towns in Ionia were conquered by the Persians around 540 BCE, and Persian tyrants subsequently ruled over them. In 499 BCE, the Greeks revolted against Persian rule, but they were ultimately defeated in 494 BCE.
Athens: The Philosophical Center of Greece
Despite the political setbacks faced by the Greeks, Athens gradually became the philosophical center of Greece by the middle of the fifth century. This was during the Classical Era of Athens, which saw the rise of renowned philosophers such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. However, the influence of the pre-Socratics continued to be felt even during this period.
Several Factors Contributed to the Birth of Pre-Socratic Philosophy in Ancient Greece
In Ancient Greece, the birth of pre-Socratic philosophy was influenced by several factors. This article explores the impact of Ionian towns, the acquisition of the alphabet, and the ease of intra-Greek travel.
Ionian Towns and Trade Relations
Ionian towns, particularly Miletus, had close trade relations with Egypt and Mesopotamia. These cultures had different observations about the natural world compared to the Greeks. This exchange of ideas and knowledge played a significant role in the development of pre-Socratic philosophy.
The Acquisition of the Alphabet
Another crucial factor was the acquisition of the alphabet by the Greeks around 800 BCE. This technical skill allowed for the recording and dissemination of ideas, fostering intellectual growth and the exchange of knowledge.
Ease of Intra-Greek Travel
During the sixth century BCE, philosophers and thinkers had the opportunity to travel easily throughout Greece. They often visited pan-Hellenic festivals, facilitating the blending and comparison of ideas. Despite the challenges of long-distance communication during ancient times, individuals, philosophers, and books were able to move across different regions of the Greek peninsula, the Aegean islands, and Magna Graecia, a coastal area in Southern Italy.
The birth of pre-Socratic philosophy in Ancient Greece was influenced by various factors. The close trade relations of Ionian towns, the acquisition of the alphabet, and the ease of intra-Greek travel all played significant roles in the development and exchange of ideas during this period.
The democratic political system of independent poleis also contributed to the rise of philosophy. Most Greek towns were not ruled by autocrats or priests, allowing citizens to freely question a wide range of issues. Various poleis flourished and became wealthy, particularly Miletus, which was a center of trade and production during the early phases of pre-Socratic philosophy. Trade of grain, oil, wine, and other commodities among each polis and colonies meant these towns were not isolated but rather embedded – and economically dependent – in a complex and changeable web of trade routes.
Greek mythology played a significant role in the development of philosophy. The ideas of the philosophers were, to some extent, responses to questions that were subtly present in the works of Homer and Hesiod. The pre-Socratics emerged from a world dominated by myths, sacred places, and local deities. Epic poets like Homer and Hesiod reflected this environment in their work. They are considered precursors to the pre-Socratics because they sought to explore the origin of the world and systematically organize traditional folklore and legends. Greek popular religion incorporated elements from neighboring civilizations such as the Egyptians, Mesopotamians, and Hittites. The first pre-Socratic philosophers also traveled extensively to other lands, indicating that pre-Socratic thought had both domestic and international roots.
Homer’s Views on the Origin and Nature of the World
In his two epic poems, Homer not only personifies gods and natural phenomena but also offers insights into the origin and nature of the world. These views were later examined by the pre-Socratics.
In his epic poem Theogony (meaning the birth of gods), Hesiod (c. 700 BCE) describes the origin of gods. Alongside the mythical structure, one can observe an attempt to organize beliefs through rationalization. For instance, Night is portrayed as giving birth to Death, Sleep, and Dreams.
The belief in the transmigration of life, which originated from the Orphics, a religious cult from Thrace, influenced the thought of the 5th century BCE. However, the extent to which their cosmology influenced philosophy is a subject of debate.
Pherecydes, a poet, magician, and contemporary of Thales, describes a particular cosmogony in his book. He asserts that three gods pre-existed, which can be seen as a step towards rationality.
The Importance of Reason in Pre-Socratic Philosophy
The most significant feature of pre-Socratic philosophy was the use of reason to explain the universe. These philosophers shared the belief that there was a single explanation that could account for both the diversity and unity of the world and that this explanation did not involve the direct actions of the gods. Instead of relying on traditional mythological explanations, the pre-Socratic philosophers favored more rational explanations, which marked the beginning of analytic and critical thinking. They focused on investigating the fundamental basis and essential nature of the external world, seeking to understand the material principle (arche) of things and the processes of their origin and disappearance. Rejecting supernatural explanations, they sought natural principles that governed the world and human society. Viewing the world as a cosmos, an ordered arrangement, they believed that it could be comprehended through rational inquiry. In their quest to make sense of the cosmos, they introduced new terms and concepts such as rhythm, symmetry, analogy, reductionism, reductionism, and the mathematization of nature.
One important term that appears in the works of several pre-Socratic philosophers is “arche.” Depending on the context, it can have various related meanings. It can refer to the beginning or origin, suggesting that it influences subsequent events. It can also denote a principle or cause, particularly in the Aristotelian tradition.
A Common Feature of the Pre-Socratics
The pre-Socratics shared a common feature: the absence of empiricism and experimentation as a means to prove their theories. This could be attributed to a lack of instruments or a tendency to perceive the world as an indivisible unity, making it impossible for external observation to discern minute aspects of nature under experimental conditions.
Three Significant Features of Pre-Socratic Philosophy
According to Jonathan Barnes, a professor of ancient philosophy, pre-Socratic philosophy can be characterized by three significant features: internal, systematic, and economical. “Internal” refers to their attempt to explain the world using characteristics inherent within it. “Systematic” reflects their endeavor to universalize their findings. Lastly, “economical” signifies their preference for introducing only a few new terms. It is through these features that they achieved their most significant accomplishment: shifting human thought from myth to philosophy and science.
The Role of Gods in Pre-Socratic Philosophy
While the pre-Socratics were not atheists, they did downplay the involvement of gods in natural phenomena such as thunder, and in some cases, completely excluded gods from the natural world.
Pre-Socratic Philosophy
Pre-Socratic philosophy is the first phase of ancient Greek philosophy, spanning approximately a thousand years. It can be further divided into three phases.
Phase 1: The Milesians, Xenophanes, and Heraclitus
The first phase of pre-Socratic philosophy involved the rejection of traditional cosmogony. Instead, philosophers attempted to explain nature through empirical observations and interpretations.
Phase 2: The Eleatics
The second phase, led by the Eleatics, resisted the idea of change or motion. They believed in radical monism, asserting that only one substance exists and forms the Kosmos. The Eleatics were also monists, believing that everything else was just a transformation of this one substance.
Phase 3: The Post-Eleatics
In the third phase, known as the post-Eleatics, philosophers such as Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Democritus opposed most Eleatic teachings. They returned to the naturalism of the Milesians.
Successors of the Pre-Socratics
Following the pre-Socratics, the second phase of ancient philosophy emerged. This phase saw the rise of philosophical movements such as Platonism, Cynicism, Cyrenaicism, Aristotelianism, Pyrrhonism, Epicureanism, Academic skepticism, and Stoicism, which remained prominent until 100 BCE. In the third phase, philosophers studied the works of their predecessors.
Milesian Beginning: Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes
The Milesian school, situated in Miletus, Ionia, during the 6th century BCE, was comprised of Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes. They likely had a teacher-pupil relationship. Their primary focus was on the origin and substance of the world. Each of them ascribed the entirety of existence to a single arche (beginning or principle), thus establishing the tradition of naturalistic monism.
Thales of Miletus: The First Philosopher
Thales of Miletus, an ancient Greek philosopher, made significant contributions to advanced geometry through his abstract deductive reasoning, which led to universal generalizations. Proclus, a later Athenian philosopher, attributed the theorem now known as Thales’s theorem to Thales. Thales is also credited with being the first to propose that the base angles of isosceles triangles are equal and that a diameter bisects a circle. He visited Sardis, like many other Greeks at the time, where astronomical records were kept and used astronomical observations for practical purposes, such as oil harvesting. Thales was highly regarded as a genius in ancient times and was revered as one of the Seven Sages of Greece.
What sets Thales apart as the first philosopher is his exploration of the fundamental philosophical question about the origin and substance of the world, and his attempt to answer it based on empirical evidence and reasoning. According to Aristotle, Thales believed that the world originated from an element rather than a divine being. The exact meaning of Thales’ concept of “arche” is open to interpretation, but it likely refers to the principle, origin, or ontological matrix of the world. Regardless of the various interpretations, Thales viewed the world as a unified entity rather than a collection of disparate elements and speculated on the binding or original elements.
Another significant aspect of Thales’ philosophy is his assertion that everything is filled with gods. The precise interpretation of this statement varies, ranging from a theistic perspective to an atheistic one. However, Aristotle suggests that Thales may have been advocating a theory of hylozoism, which posits that the universe, encompassing all existing things, is both divine and alive. Lastly, Thales made the notable claim that the earth “rests on water,” possibly based on his observation of fish fossils on land.
Anaximander
Anaximander (610–546 BCE), a member of the elite of Miletus, was a wealthy statesman who showed interest in various fields, including mathematics and geography. He drew the first map of the world, concluded that the earth is spherical, and created instruments to mark time, similar to a clock.
In response to Thales, Anaximander postulated an undefined and unlimited substance without qualities (apeiron) as the first principle. From this substance, the primary opposites of hot and cold, moist and dry, emerged. His explanation aimed to account for observable changes by attributing them to a single source that transforms into various elements. Like Thales, Anaximander provided naturalistic explanations for phenomena that were previously attributed to the supernatural. He also speculated on the origin of mankind.
Anaximander proclaimed that the earth is unsupported and not situated within another structure in the middle of the universe. Furthermore, he developed a rudimentary evolutionary explanation for biodiversity, suggesting that constant universal powers influenced the lives of animals.
According to Giorgio de Santillana, a philosophy professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Anaximander’s conception of a universe governed by laws had a profound impact on philosophical thinking for centuries to come. It was as significant as the discovery of fire or Einstein’s breakthroughs in science.
Anaximenes
Little is known about the life of Anaximenes (585–525 BCE). He was a younger contemporary and friend of Anaximander, and the two collaborated on various intellectual projects. Anaximenes also authored a book on nature in prose.
Anaximenes believed that the fundamental principle of the universe was aēr (air). He proposed that air could be modified, through processes of thickening and thinning, to form the other classical elements: fire, wind, clouds, water, and earth. While his theory shared similarities with that of Anaximander, who also posited a single source for the universe, Anaximenes introduced more intricate mechanisms to explain the transformation of air into other elements, primarily due to changes in density.
Since the classical era, Anaximenes has been regarded as the father of naturalistic explanations. He expanded on Anaximander’s quest to find a unified cause that could account for both living and nonliving natural phenomena, without reducing living things to mere locations of material change, as noted by James Warren.
Xenophanes
Xenophanes was born in Colophon, an Ionian town near Miletus. He was a well-traveled poet with a primary interest in theology and epistemology.
Theology
Xenophanes questioned the nature of the gods. He criticized the anthropomorphic representation of the gods by his contemporary Greeks, noting that different nations depicted their gods as resembling themselves. He famously said, “If oxen, horses, or lions could draw, they would draw their gods as oxen, horses, or lions.” This critique extended beyond the physical appearance of the gods to their behavior. Greek mythology, influenced by poets like Homer and Hesiod, attributed moral failures such as jealousy and adultery to the gods. Xenophanes opposed this, arguing that gods should be morally superior to humans. However, he did not claim that the gods were omnipotent, omnibenevolent, or omniscient.
Naturalistic Explanations
Xenophanes also offered naturalistic explanations for various phenomena. Traditionally, phenomena such as the sun, the rainbow, and St. Elmo’s fire were attributed to divine intervention. However, Xenophanes argued that these were effects of clouds. His explanations demonstrate an empirical approach to understanding the world and can be seen as a precursor to scientific thinking. Despite this, his cosmology and naturalism were largely overlooked by scholars after Aristotle, possibly due to the absence of teleology. However, recent literature suggests a reevaluation of Xenophanes’ ideas.
Epistemology
Xenophanes questioned the validity of human knowledge. While he was pessimistic about humans’ ability to attain true knowledge, he believed in gradual progress through critical thinking. He sought naturalistic explanations for meteorological and cosmological phenomena.
Ancient philosophy historian Alexander Mourelatos observes that Xenophanes employed a pattern of thought still utilized in modern metaphysics. Xenophanes argued that meteorological phenomena, such as the rainbow, are clouds. For instance, in B32, he states, “What they call Iris (the rainbow) that too is in reality a cloud: one that appears to the eye as purple, red, and green. This is still used today, for example, in the understanding that ‘lightning is a massive electrical discharge’ or ‘items such as tables are a cloud of micro-particles’.” Mourelatos remarks that this type of analogy, known as the cloud analogy, continues to be present in scientific language and is often used to illustrate inter-theoretic identity.
According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, Xenophanes was Parmenides’ teacher. However, it is a matter of debate in current literature whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic.
Heraclitus
The hallmark of Heraclitus’ philosophy is flux. In fragment DK B30, Heraclitus writes: “This world-order Kosmos], the same of all, no god nor man did create, but it ever was and is and will be: everliving fire, kindling in measures and being quenched in measures.” Heraclitus posited that all things in nature are in a state of perpetual flux. Like previous monist philosophers, Heraclitus claimed that the arche of the world was fire, which was subject to change – that makes him a materialist monist. From fire, all things originate and all things return to it again in a process of eternal cycles. Fire becomes water and earth, and vice versa. These everlasting modifications explain his view that the cosmos was, is, and will be. The idea of continual flux is also met in the “river fragments”. There, Heraclitus claims we cannot step into the same river twice, a position summarized with the slogan “ta panta rhei” (everything flows). One fragment reads: “Into the same rivers we both step and do not step; we both are and are not” (DK 22 B49a). Heraclitus is seemingly suggesting that not only the river is constantly changing, but we do as well, even hinting at existential questions about humankind.
Another important concept of Heraclitus is the unity of opposites, which suggests that opposites somehow reflect each other. Two fragments that relate to this concept state, “As the same thing in us is living and dead, waking and sleeping, young and old. For these things having changed around are those, and those in turn having changed around are these” (B88) and “Cold things warm up, the hot cools off, wet becomes dry, dry becomes wet” (B126). According to Heraclitus, the unity of opposites maintains the unity of the world and its various parts through the tension created by these opposites. Additionally, each polar substance contains its opposite, resulting in a continuous circular exchange and motion that brings stability to the cosmos. Another famous axiom of Heraclitus that highlights this doctrine is “War is the father of all and king of all; and some he manifested as gods, some as men; some he made slaves, some free” (B53), where war represents the creative tension that brings things into existence.
A Fundamental Idea in Heraclitus: Logos
In Heraclitus’ philosophy, the concept of logos holds great significance. Logos is an ancient Greek word that carries multiple meanings, and it is possible that Heraclitus employed different interpretations of the word throughout his book. One fragment suggests that logos represents a universal law that binds the cosmos together: “Listening not to me but to the logos, it is wise to agree (homologein) that all things are one” (DK 22 B50). Despite its omnipresence, logos remains unfamiliar to most individuals. Fragment B 19 states: “[hoi polloi] ‘…do not know how to listen [to logos] or how to speak [the truth]’.” Heraclitus’ ideas on logos greatly influenced the Stoics, who cited him as support for their belief in a rational governing law of the universe.
Pythagoreanism
Pythagoras (582–496 BCE) was born on Samos, a small island near Miletus. At the age of 30, he moved to Croton, where he established his school and gained political influence. However, he was later forced to flee Croton and relocate to Metapontum.
Pythagoras was renowned for his study of numbers and the geometric relationships between them. His doctrine was embraced and expanded upon by a large following of Pythagoreans. They took his ideas further, asserting that everything is composed of numbers, the universe is created by numbers, and everything is a reflection of analogies and geometric relationships. The Pythagoreans believed that the study of mathematics, which encompassed numbers, music, and philosophy, could bring solace to the beauty-seeking human soul.
Pythagoreanism viewed the world as a perfect harmony, dependent on numbers, and aimed to encourage people to lead harmonious lives. This included following ritual and dietary recommendations. The Pythagoreans lived an ascetic lifestyle, abstaining from various pleasures and specific foods. They were also vegetarians and placed great importance on friendship. Politically, Pythagoras advocated for a form of aristocracy, a position that later Pythagoreans rejected. However, they were generally conservative and notably suppressed women. Other pre-Socratic philosophers ridiculed Pythagoras for his belief in reincarnation.
Notable Pythagoreans
Philolaus
Philolaus was a Pythagorean philosopher who made significant contributions to cosmology. He is best known for his discovery of heliocentricism, the idea that the Sun lies in the middle of the Earth’s orbit and other planets.
Alcmaeon of Croton
Alcmaeon was a Pythagorean philosopher and medical writer. He observed that most organs in the body come in pairs and proposed that human health depends on the balance between opposites, such as hot and cold, dry and wet. He also recognized the brain as the center of senses and thinking.
Pythagoreanism had a significant influence on later Christian currents, such as Neoplatonism, and Plato adapted its pedagogical methods. Additionally, there appears to be a continuity in certain aspects of Plato’s philosophy. As noted by Carl A. Huffman, Plato often used mathematics to explain natural phenomena and also believed in the immortality and divinity of the human soul.
The Eleatics: Parmenides, Zeno, and Melissus
The Eleatic school derives its name from Elea, an ancient Greek town located on the southern Italian Peninsula. Parmenides is widely regarded as the founder of this school. Other notable figures associated with the Eleatics include Zeno of Elea and Melissus of Samos. According to Aristotle and Diogenes Laertius, Parmenides’ teacher was Xenophanes, although there is ongoing debate about whether Xenophanes should also be considered an Eleatic.
Parmenides, born around 515 BCE in Elea to a wealthy family, had a wide range of interests, including biology and astronomy. He was the first to deduce that the Earth is spherical. Additionally, Parmenides actively participated in the political affairs of his town.
Parmenides’ Contributions to Ancient Philosophy and Western Metaphysics
Parmenides made significant contributions to ancient philosophy and had a profound impact on Western metaphysics and ontology. His poem, “On Nature” or “On What-is,” is challenging to interpret but greatly influenced later Greek philosophy. Although only 150 fragments of this poem have survived, they provide valuable insights.
The poem is divided into three parts: the proem (preface), the Way of Truth, and the Way of Opinion. While very few pieces from the Way of Opinion remain, references by other authors suggest that Parmenides explored cosmology in that section. However, the Way of Truth is considered more important both in the past and today.
In the Way of Truth, the goddess criticizes the flawed logic of those who fail to distinguish between the real and the non-existent (“What-is” and “What-is-Not”). Parmenides presents his philosophy that all things are One, and therefore, nothing can be changed or altered. According to Parmenides, “What-is” is an eternal, unchanging, and infinite physical sphere. This monist worldview is more radical than that of Heraclitus.
The goddess teaches a young man, Kouros, to use reasoning to discern the truth and falsehood of various claims, disregarding unreliable senses. Parmenides’ poem also raises fundamental issues such as the doctrine that nothing comes from nothing and the unity of being and thinking. As DK fragment 3 states: “To gar auto noein estin te kai einai” (For to think and to be is the same).
Parmenides’ work remains influential and continues to shape philosophical discourse to this day.
The Eleatics’ emphasis on Being, achieved through the use of logic, laid the foundation for the philosophical field of ontology. Other philosophers, including the Sophists, Plato, and Aristotle, were also influenced by the Eleatics and made significant contributions to logic, argumentation, mathematics, and particularly elenchus (proof). The Sophists subjected Being to rigorous examination through elenchus. As a result, the Eleatics’ reasoning began to adopt a more formal approach.
The Pluralists: Anaxagoras and Empedocles
The Pluralist school represented a revival of Milesian natural philosophy but with significant refinements due to Eleatic criticism.
Anaxagoras: The First Major Philosopher to Emigrate to Athens
Anaxagoras, a philosopher born in Ionia, holds the distinction of being the first major philosopher to emigrate to Athens. He quickly became associated with the Athenian statesman Pericles. However, due to this association, a political opponent of Pericles accused Anaxagoras of impiety. The accusation stemmed from Anaxagoras’ belief that the sun was not associated with divinity, but rather a massive burning stone. To protect Anaxagoras, Pericles assisted him in fleeing Athens and returning to Ionia. It is worth noting that Anaxagoras also had a significant influence on Socrates.
Anaxagoras’ “Theory of Everything”
Anaxagoras is renowned for his “theory of everything,” which posits that “in everything, there is a share of everything.”The interpretation of this statement varies among scholars. Anaxagoras aimed to remain faithful to the Eleatic principle of the everlasting (What-is) while also explaining the diversity observed in the natural world. Anaxagoras accepted Parmenides’ doctrine that everything that exists (What-is) has existed forever. However, in contrast to the Eleatics, he introduced the concepts of panspermia and nous. According to Anaxagoras, all objects are composed of various elements, such as air, water, and others. Notably, there is one special element called nous, or mind, which is present in living beings and is responsible for causing motion.
According to Anaxagoras, “Nous” was one of the elements that make up the cosmos. Objects that possessed “Nous” were considered alive. Anaxagoras believed that all things are composed of basic elements, although it is unclear what these elements are. Every object is a mixture of these building blocks and contains a portion of each element, except for “Nous.” While “Nous” is also considered a building block of the cosmos, it only exists in living objects. Anaxagoras states, “In everything, there is a portion of everything except mind (Nous), but there are some things in which mind too is present.” “Nous” is not just an element of things; it is also the cause of setting the universe into motion. Anaxagoras expanded on Milesian thought on epistemology and aimed to establish an explanation that could apply to all natural phenomena. Influenced by the Eleatics, he also delved into metatheoretical questions concerning the nature of knowledge.
Empedocles: A Philosopher and Poet
Empedocles, a renowned philosopher and poet, was born in Akragas, a town located in the southern Italian peninsula. According to Diogenes Laertius, Empedocles wrote two books in the form of poems: “Peri Physeos” (On Nature) and “Katharmoi” (Purifications). While some contemporary scholars argue that these books might be one, they all agree that interpreting Empedocles’ work is a challenging task.
Cosmologically, Empedocles draws inspiration from the Eleatic school, embracing the idea that the universe is eternal and has always existed, and always will. He also builds upon Anaxagoras’ concept of the four “roots” or classical elements – fire, air, earth, and water – which, when combined, give rise to all the phenomena in our surroundings. However, Empedocles introduces two additional components: the immaterial forces of love and strife. These opposing forces either bring the four roots together in harmony or tear them apart, resulting in the creation of all things that exist. Empedocles likens this process to a painter using a few basic colors to create a painting. The precise nature of the relationship between love and strife, and whether they cooperate or follow a grander plan, remains somewhat unclear. Nevertheless, love and strife perpetually cycle, generating life.
In addition to the four roots and the forces of love and strife, Empedocles’ “Purifications” also acknowledges the existence of mortals, gods, and daemons. Similar to Pythagoras, Empedocles believed in the transmigration of the soul and adhered to a vegetarian lifestyle.
Leucippus and Democritus: Atomic Cosmology and Beyond
Leucippus and Democritus, two renowned philosophers from Abdera in Thrace, are best known for their atomic cosmology. However, their philosophical contributions extended to various other fields, including ethics, mathematics, aesthetics, politics, and even embryology.
The atomic theory proposed by Leucippus and Democritus was a direct response to the Eleatic school’s belief that motion is impossible because everything is occupied by the “What-is.” In contrast, Democritus and Leucippus challenged this axiom by asserting that if motion exists, then the “What-is-not” must also exist, thus introducing the concept of void. While they were skeptical about the reliability of our senses, they firmly believed in the existence of motion.
According to Democritus and Leucippus, atoms shared certain characteristics with the Eleatic “What-is”: they were homogeneous and indivisible. These characteristics allowed them to provide explanations for Zeno’s paradoxes. Atoms move within the void, interact with one another, and mechanically form the diverse world we inhabit.
Determinism was one of the key conclusions drawn by the Atomists. This philosophical view posits that all events are entirely determined by preexisting causes. As Leucippus stated, “Nothing comes to be random but everything is by reason and out of necessity.”Democritus further argued that since everything consists of atoms and void, some of our senses are not real but rather conventional. For instance, color is not an inherent property of atoms; therefore, our perception of color is a convention. In Democritus’ words, “By convention sweet, by convention bitter, by convention hot, by convention cold, by convention color; in reality atoms and void.”This statement can be interpreted in two ways. According to James Warren, there is an eliminativist interpretation, suggesting that Democritus meant color is not real. Alternatively, there is a relativist interpretation, suggesting that Democritus meant color and taste are not real but are perceived as such by our senses through sensory interaction.
Sophists
The Sophists were a philosophical and educational movement that thrived in ancient Greece before Socrates. They challenged conventional beliefs, including those related to gods and morality, which paved the way for further advancements in philosophy and other disciplines such as drama, social sciences, mathematics, and history.
Plato’s criticism of the sophists had a lasting negative impact on their reputation. According to Plato, philosophy should only be pursued by those who possess the necessary intellectual capacity, whereas the sophists were willing to teach anyone who could afford their fees. The sophists focused on teaching rhetoric and the ability to consider multiple perspectives when addressing issues. Due to their persuasive skills in court and public speaking, they were often accused of promoting moral and epistemological relativism, a charge that some sophists indeed seemed to embrace. Notable sophists include Protagoras, Gorgias, Hippias, Thrasymachus, Prodicus, Callicles, Antiphon, and Critias.
Protagoras’ Quotes
Protagoras is best known for two quotes. One of them states, “[humans are..] the measure of all things, of things that are that they are, of things that are not that they are not.” This quote is often interpreted as affirming philosophical relativism. However, it can also be understood as asserting that knowledge is only relevant to humankind and that moral rightness and other forms of knowledge are limited to human perception.
The other quote by Protagoras states, “Concerning the gods, I cannot ascertain whether they exist or whether they do not, or what form they have; for there are many obstacles to knowing, including the obscurity of the question and the brevity of human life.”
Gorgias’ Critique of the Eleatics’ Concepts in “On Nature”
Gorgias, a prominent ancient philosopher, authored a book titled “On Nature” where he vehemently criticized the Eleatics’ notions of what is and What. In his work, he argued against the idea of nonexistence existing, deeming it absurd. Additionally, Gorgias contended that the concept of What-is was inherently flawed since it had to either be generated or be unlimited, neither of which were satisfactory explanations.
The assessment of Gorgias’ intellectual contributions remains a subject of ongoing debate among contemporary scholars. Some view him as a serious thinker, while others consider him a precursor to extreme relativism and skepticism. However, some dismiss him as a mere charlatan.
Antiphon’s View on Natural Law and City Law
Antiphon believed that natural law should take precedence over the laws of the city. According to him, one is not obligated to obey the laws of the city as long as one can avoid getting caught. Some may argue that Antiphon was a cautious hedonist, as he rejected indulging in dangerous pleasures.
Philolaus of Croton and Diogenes of Apollonia
Philolaus of Croton and Diogenes of Apollonia, both born around 460 BCE, are considered the last generation of pre-Socratics. While they did not focus on cosmology like their predecessors, they made significant contributions to abstract thinking and argumentation.
Philolaus, influenced by Pythagoreanism, Anaxagoras, and Empedocles, sought to explain the unity and diversity of the cosmos. He introduced the concept of Harmonia, a binding force that shapes the various masses of the universe. According to his view, the cosmos consisted of unlimited (apeira) and limiters (perainonta).
Diogenes of Apollonia, on the other hand, returned to Milesian monism but presented a more elegant perspective. In DK64 B2, he states, “It seems to me, overall, that all things are alterations of the same things and are the same thing.” He argues that even as things change shape, they remain fundamentally the same ontologically.
Topics
Knowledge
The mythologoi, Homer and Hesiod, along with other poets, believed that true knowledge was exclusive to the divine. However, starting with Xenophanes, the pre-Socratics began to adopt a more natural approach to knowledge. They sought to understand the cosmos while acknowledging the limitations of human knowledge.
While Pythagoras and Empedocles attributed their wisdom to their divine inspiration, they also tried to teach mortals to seek the truth about the natural world. Pythagoras did so through mathematics and geometry, while Empedocles emphasized the importance of firsthand experiences. Xenophanes, on the other hand, believed that human knowledge was merely an opinion that could not be validated or proven true. According to Jonathan Warren, Xenophanes laid the foundation for the nature of knowledge. Later, Heraclitus and Parmenides emphasized the ability of humans to understand the workings of nature through direct observation, inquiry, and reflection.
Teleological Explanations
The pre-Socratic philosophers challenged the traditional representations of gods established by Homer and Hesiod, subjecting Greek popular religion to scrutiny. This marked the beginning of the divide between natural philosophy and theology. It is important to note that while the pre-Socratic philosophers did not hold atheistic beliefs, being an atheist during that time carried social and legal risks. However, arguments questioning the existence of deities were still allowed in the public sphere, as seen in Protagoras’s statement: “About the gods, I can know neither that they exist nor that they do not exist.”
Theological Thought of the Milesian Philosophers
The theological thought of the Milesian philosophers can be observed in Anaximander’s concept of the Apeiron, which was believed to govern everything and possessed abilities typically attributed to Zeus. Xenophanes, on the other hand, criticized the anthropomorphism of the gods and set three conditions for God: being all good, immortal, and not resembling humans in appearance. This had a significant impact on Western religious thought.
Theological Thought of Heraclitus and Parmenides
The theological beliefs of Heraclitus and Parmenides are not entirely clear, but it is generally accepted that they believed in some form of divinity. The Pythagoreans and Empedocles, on the other hand, believed in the transmigration of souls. Anaxagoras proposed that cosmic intelligence, known as “nous,” gives life to things. Diogenes of Apollonia further developed this line of thinking and may have constructed the first teleological argument, stating that without Intellection, the universe would not be able to have the measures of all things, such as winter, summer, night, day, rains, winds, and fair weather. While some pre-Socratic philosophers sought alternatives to the concept of divinity, others laid the groundwork for explaining the universe through teleology and intelligent design by a divine force.
Medicine
Before the pre-Socratics, health, and illness were believed to be governed by gods. Pre-Socratic philosophy and medicine developed together, with medicine being a part of philosophy and vice versa. Although Hippocrates, often referred to as the father of medicine, partially separated the two domains, physicians still incorporated pre-Socratic philosophical ideas into their theoretical framework, blurring the boundaries between the two. For example, the study of epilepsy, which was considered a divine intervention in popular religion, was attributed to nature by Hippocrates’ school, similar to how Milesian rationalism demythologized other natural phenomena like earthquakes. The systematic study of anatomy, physiology, and illnesses led to the discovery of cause-effect relationships, a more sophisticated terminology, and a deeper understanding of diseases, ultimately contributing to the development of rational science.
Cosmology
The pre-Socratics were the first to attempt to provide reductive explanations for a plethora of natural phenomena.
The Mystery of Cosmic Matter
Firstly, they were preoccupied with the mystery of cosmic matter—what was the basic substance of the universe? Anaximander suggested apeiron (limitless), which hints, as Aristotle analyzed, that there is no beginning and no end to it, both chronologically and within the space. Anaximenes placed aêr (air) as the primary principle, probably after realizing the importance of air to life and/or the need to explain various observable changes. Heraclitus, also seeking to address the issue of the ever-changing world, placed fire as the primary principle of the universe, which transforms into water and earth to produce the universe. The ever-transforming nature is summarized by Heraclitus’ axiom panta rhei (everything is in a state of flux). Parmenides suggested two everlasting primary building blocks, night and day, which together form the universe. Empedocles increased the building blocks to four and named them roots, while also adding Love and Strife to serve as the driving force for the roots to mingle. Anaxagoras extended, even more, the plurality of Empedocles, claiming everything is in everything, myriads of substances were mixing among each other except one, Nous (mind), that orchestrates everything—but did not attribute divine characteristics to Nous. Leucippus and Democritus asserted the universe consists of atoms and void, while the motion of atoms is responsible for the changes we observe.
Rationalism, Observation, and the Beginning of Scientific Thought
The pre-Socratic intellectual revolution is widely regarded as the initial step towards liberating the human mind from the mythical world. It marked the beginning of a journey towards reason and scientific thought, which ultimately gave rise to modern Western philosophy and science. The pre-Socratics sought to understand the various aspects of nature through rationalism and observation, offering explanations that could be considered scientific. This laid the foundation for what would later become Western rationalism].
Thales was the first to search for a unitary “arche” of the world. Although the exact meaning of “arche” is unclear, it refers to the beginning, origin, main principle, or basic element. Thales’ quest was the first attempt to reduce explanations of the universe to a single cause, based on reason rather than guided by any form of divinity. Anaximander introduced the principle of sufficient reason, which revolutionized the understanding of causality and led to the principle that “nothing comes out of nothing”.
Most of the pre-Socratics seemed indifferent to the concept of teleology, particularly the Atomists who vehemently rejected the idea. According to them, the various phenomena were the result of the motion of atoms without any purpose. Xenophanes also critiqued anthropomorphic religion by rationally highlighting the inconsistency of depictions of the gods in Greek popular religion.
Undoubtedly, the pre-Socratics played a crucial role in the development of science. However, there is ongoing debate about whether their contributions can be considered scientific. Thales, for example, provided the first account of reduction and generalization, which was a significant step towards scientific thinking. Other pre-Socratics also attempted to answer the question of arche, offering different explanations. Nevertheless, their efforts marked an important milestone in the progression of scientific thought.
In his influential work “Back to Presocratics” (1958), philosopher Karl Popper traces the origins of modern science and Western civilization back to the early Greek philosophers. He asserts that the Greek tradition of philosophical criticism, primarily originating in Ionia, laid the foundation for the rational and scientific mindset that defines our civilization. Popper states, “It thus leads the tradition which created the rational or scientific attitude and with it our Western civilization, the only civilization, which is based upon science (though, of course, not upon science alone).” In the same study, Popper downplays the significance of the labels assigned to the pre-Socratics, emphasizing the perfect continuity of thought between their theories and later developments in physics. He argues that whether they are called philosophers, pre-scientists, or scientists is of little importance.
However, not all scholars share Popper’s perspective. F. M. Cornford, for instance, considers the Ionians as dogmatic speculators due to their lack of empiricism.
Reception and legacy
The Influence of the Pre-Socratics on Classical Antiquity
The pre-Socratics had a significant impact on classical antiquity in various ways. Their philosophical ideas heavily influenced later philosophers, historians, and playwrights. There were two main lines of influence: the Socrato-Ciceronian tradition and the Platonic-Aristotelian tradition.
Socrates, Xenophon, and Cicero were greatly influenced by the physiologoi, as they were known in ancient times. The naturalists made a strong impression on young Socrates, who initially showed interest in understanding the fundamental substance of the cosmos. However, his focus gradually shifted towards epistemology, virtue, and ethics, rather than the natural world. According to Xenophon, Socrates believed that humans were incapable of fully comprehending the cosmos. In Plato’s Phaedo, it is mentioned that Socrates was uneasy with the materialistic approach of the pre-Socratics, particularly Anaxagoras. Cicero also analyzed the views of the pre-Socratics in his Tusculanae Disputationes, highlighting the theoretical nature of their thought compared to previous “sages” who were more concerned with practical issues. Similarly, Xenophon observed that the main difference between the pre-Socratics and Socrates was Socrates’ interest in human affairs (ta anthropina).
The Influence of the Pre-Socratics on Plato and Aristotle
In this section, we will explore the profound influence of the pre-Socratics on both Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle, in particular, discussed the pre-Socratics in the first book of Metaphysics, using them as an introduction to his philosophy and his search for arche. He credited Thales as the starting point of philosophy, although it is unclear whether Thales himself referred to water as arche or if this was a later interpretation by Aristotle. Notably, Aristotle criticized the pre-Socratics for their failure to identify a purpose as a final cause, a fundamental concept in Aristotelian metaphysics. Plato, on the other hand, also attacked pre-Socratic materialism.
The Influence of the Pre-Socratics during the Hellenistic Era
Moving forward to the Hellenistic era, we find that philosophers from various schools of thought focused on the study of nature and further developed pre-Socratic ideas. The Stoics, for example, incorporated elements from Anaxagoras, such as nous, into their philosophy, while the Epicureans saw Democritus’ atomism as their predecessor. Additionally, the Sceptics were associated with Xenophanes.
By examining the influence of the pre-Socratics on subsequent philosophers, we can gain a deeper understanding of the lasting impact of their ideas.
Modern Era
The pre-Socratics, along with the rest of ancient Greece, played a significant role in shaping Western civilization. They introduced fundamental concepts such as freedom, democracy, individual autonomy, and rationalism. Francis Bacon, a 16th-century philosopher renowned for his contributions to the scientific method, was one of the first philosophers of the modern era to extensively incorporate pre-Socratic axioms into his texts. However, Bacon criticized the pre-Socratic theory of knowledge put forth by Xenophanes and others. He argued that their deductive reasoning could not produce meaningful results, a viewpoint that the contemporary philosophy of science rejects. Bacon’s affinity for the pre-Socratics, particularly Democritus’ atomist theory, may have been influenced by his opposition to Aristotelianism.
Friedrich Nietzsche held a deep admiration for the pre-Socratics, referring to them as “tyrants of the spirit” to highlight their contrast with Socrates and his successors. Nietzsche utilized the pre-Socratic rejection of teleology, along with the materialism exemplified by Democritus, to critique Christianity and its moral values. Nietzsche viewed the pre-Socratics as the earliest pioneers of modern science, drawing connections between Empedocles and Darwinism, and Heraclitus and physicist Helmholtz. According to Nietzsche’s narrative, as depicted in many of his books, the pre-Socratic era represented the glorious period of Greece, while the so-called Golden Age that followed was a time of decline. Nietzsche incorporated the pre-Socratics into his Apollonian and Dionysian dialectics, with the pre-Socratics symbolizing the creative Dionysian aspect of the duo.
Martin Heidegger derived his phenomenology and later ideas on Things and the Fourfold from the pre-Socratics. He considered Anaximander, Parmenides, and Heraclitus as the original thinkers of being. In their work, he identified physis [φύσις] (emergence, contrasted against κρύπτεσθαι, kryptesthai, in Heraclitus’ Fragment 123) or aletheia [αλήθεια] (truth as unconcealment) as the roots of his thinking.
FAQ
What is Pre-Socratic philosophy and its significance in ancient Greece?
Pre-Socratic philosophy, also known as Early Greek Philosophy, refers to the philosophical tradition predating Socrates, primarily focused on cosmology and natural laws. It laid the foundation for scientific methodology and rationalism, influencing later philosophical movements.
Who were the key figures in Pre-Socratic philosophy and what were their contributions?
- Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes proposed the concept of “arche” to explain the nature of the world.
- Xenophanes criticized anthropomorphism in gods.
- Heraclitus emphasized impermanence and considered fire as the arche.
- Pythagoras developed a cult-like following that believed the universe was composed of numbers.
What were the major factors contributing to the birth of Pre-Socratic philosophy in Ancient Greece?
- Ionian Towns and Trade Relations
- The Acquisition of the Alphabet
- Ease of Intra-Greek Travel
- Democratic Political System of Independent Poleis
What was the impact of the Pre-Socratics on Western civilization and their influence on subsequent philosophers?
The Pre-Socratics laid the foundation for Western rationalism, influenced classical antiquity, and inspired later philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. Their ideas continued to shape philosophical discourse in the Hellenistic era and even influenced modern philosophers like Francis Bacon and Friedrich Nietzsche.